Pharmaceutical industry – Drug Discovery, Research, Innovation
The vast majority of hormones were identified, had their biological activity defined, and were synthesized in the first half of the 20th century. Illnesses relating to their excess or deficiency were also beginning to be understood at that time. Hormones, produced in specific organs, released into the circulation, and carried to other organs, significantly affect metabolism and homeostasis. Some examples of hormones are insulin (from the pancreas), epinephrine (or adrenaline; from the adrenal medulla), thyroxine (from the thyroid gland), cortisol (from the adrenal cortex), estrogen (from the ovaries), and testosterone (from the testes). As a result of discovering these hormones and their mechanisms of action in the body, it became possible to treat illnesses of deficiency or excess effectively. The discovery and use of insulin to treat diabetes is an example of these developments.
In 1869 Paul Langerhans, a medical student in Germany, was studying the histology of the pancreas. He noted that this organ has two distinct types of cells—acinar cells, now known to secrete digestive enzymes, and islet cells (now called islets of Langerhans). The function of islet cells was suggested in 1889 when German physiologist and pathologist Oskar Minkowski and German physician Joseph von Mering showed that removing the pancreas from a dog caused the animal to exhibit a disorder quite similar to human diabetes mellitus (elevated blood glucose and metabolic changes). After this discovery, a number of scientists in various parts of the world attempted to extract the active substance from the pancreas so that it could be used to treat diabetes. We now know that these attempts were largely unsuccessful because the digestive enzymes present in the acinar cells metabolized the insulin from the islet cells when the pancreas was disrupted.
One of the first successful attempts to isolate the active substance was reported in 1921 by Romanian physiologist Nicolas C. Paulescu, who discovered a substance called pancrein in pancreatic extracts from dogs. Paulescu found that diabetic dogs given an injection of pancrein experienced a temporary decrease in blood glucose levels. Although he did not purify pancrein, it is thought that the substance was insulin. That same year, working independently, Frederick Banting, a young Canadian surgeon in Toronto, persuaded a physiology professor to allow him use of a laboratory to search for the active substance from the pancreas. Banting guessed correctly that the islet cells secreted insulin, which was destroyed by enzymes from the acinar cells. By this time Banting had enlisted the support of Charles H. Best, a fourth-year medical student. Together they tied off the pancreatic ducts through which acinar cells release the digestive enzymes. This insult caused the acinar cells to die. Subsequently, the remainder of the pancreas was homogenized and extracted with ethyl alcohol and acid. The extract thus obtained decreased blood glucose levels in dogs with a form of diabetes. Banting and Best worked with Canadian chemist James B. Collip and Scottish physiologist J.J.R. Macleod to obtain purified insulin, and shortly thereafter, in 1922, a 14-year-old boy with severe diabetes was the first human to be treated successfully with the pancreatic extracts.
After this success other scientists became involved in the quest to develop large quantities of purified insulin extracts. Eventually, extracts from pig and cow pancreases created a sufficient and reliable supply of insulin. For the next 50 years most of the insulin used to treat diabetes was extracted from porcine and bovine sources. There are only slight differences in chemical structure between bovine, porcine, and human insulin, and their hormonal activities are essentially equivalent. Today, as a result of recombinant DNA technology, most of the insulin used in therapy is synthesized by pharmaceutical companies and is identical to human insulin (see below Synthetic human proteins).
Identification of vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are necessary for body metabolism and, generally, must be provided from the diet. For centuries many diseases of dietary deficiency had been recognized, although not well defined. Most of the vitamin deficiency disorders were biochemically and physiologically defined in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The discovery of thiamin (vitamin B1) exemplifies how vitamin deficiencies and their treatment were discovered.
Thiamin deficiency produces beriberi, a word from the Sinhalese meaning “extreme weakness.” The symptoms include spasms and rigidity of the legs, possible paralysis of a limb, personality disturbances, and depression. This disease became widespread in Asia in the 19th century because steam-powered rice mills produced polished rice, which lacked the vitamin-rich husk. A dietary deficiency was first suggested as the cause of beriberi in 1880 when a new diet was instituted for the Japanese navy. When fish, meat, barley, and vegetables were added to the sailor’s diet of polished rice, the incidence of beriberi in the navy was significantly reduced. In 1897 the Dutch physician Christiaan Eijkman was working in Java when he showed that fowl fed a diet of polished rice developed symptoms similar to beriberi. He was also able to demonstrate that unpolished rice in the diet prevented and cured the symptoms in fowl and humans. By 1912 a highly concentrated extract of the active ingredient was prepared by the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk, who recognized that it belonged to a new class of essential foods called vitamins. Thiamin was isolated in 1926 and its chemical structure determined in 1936. The chemical structures of the other vitamins were determined prior to 1940.
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